The Order Has Been Carried Out: History, Memory, and Meaning of a Nazi Massacre in Rome

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Contents 1 Background 2 Awards 3 Methodology 4 Summary 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Key Issues or Questions 4.2 Part I: Rome 4.2.1 Chapter 2-4 4.3 Part II: The Fosse Ardeatine 4.3.1 Chapters 5-7 4.4 Part III: Memory 4.4.1 Chapter 8-10 5 Discussion Topics 6 References

Background

On March 23, 1944, a group of partisan activists attacked a group of Nazi soldiers while they were marching through the streets of Rome, killing thirty-two soldiers and wounding several others. When the bomb was set off, the soldiers were not engaged in combat. In retaliation, the Nazis quickly and discreetly arrested and killed 320 Romans (ten for every one killed at Via Rasalle) in a cave now called Fosse Ardeantine. The retaliation took place within twenty-four hours of the bombing. In the evening on March 24, the Germans issued a press release announcing their retaliation, which had already been carried out.

The Order Has Been Carried Out was written by Alessandro Portelli and published in 2003. Although the book discusses the unfortunate and horrific events of March 23 and 24, 1944, the events are not the true subject of the book. Portelli seeks to explore the way that memory and meaning change over time, and how that process is linked with the identity of a people, in this case, the Roman people. Portelli writes for the people of Rome in the past, present, and future, and is extremely committed to honoring those who cannot speak for themselves and to sharing these memories so they will not be lost.

Awards

Winner of the 2005 Oral History Association Book Award

Methodology

The introduction of the book goes into great detail on how the book was constructed and how the oral histories were done.

The book is based on 200 interviews conducted between July 1997 and February 1999.

The choice of narrators was deliberate, and the following people were interviewed:

• Relatives of those killed at Fosse Ardeantine
• Partisans including members of the GAP and other organizations active throughout Rome
• People who lived near the people killed at the Fosse Ardeantine or in areas where partisans were active
• Right Wing activists
• People ages 15-25 to help understand what they remember and how memory and meaning change over time

Each chapter of the book opens with one oral history account in its entirety and closes with longer excerpts from other oral histories.

Quotations are presented as verbatim as possible, however, Portelli does quite extensive editing as he states "I have constructed the book as a multi-voiced narrative, a montage of fragments of varying lengths, because it was impossible to use all of the thousands of pages of transcripts and because oral history is not just the collection of stories but also their interpretation and representations."¹

He goes on to state, "Yet, for reasons of space and readability I have made frequent internal cuts, montage, and transpositions. I wanted the printed words to retain the same quality as the oral performance: I do not believe in the "objectivity" and "fidelity" of a literal transcription that reproduces a gripping oral discourse as a boring written text. My editorial interventions vary in proportion to the factuality of each quotation: there is more editing if the factual function prevails, less if I am attempting to draw attention to the quality of speech."²

The original tapes and transcripts of the interviews can be found at Franco Coggiola Archive in Rome. It should be noted that both the interviews and the transcripts are in Italian.

Summary

The book is organized into three parts in addition to the introduction.

Introduction

The introduction deals with the methodology of the book as well as the key issues or concepts that Portelli focuses on.

Key Issues or Questions

• Where does the story start?

-Portelli identifies several possible places to begin the story, including the bombing, the massacre, and the beginning of Facism.

• Where does the story end?

- Again, Potelli identifies several possible points to end the story, including after the bombing or after the massacre. Portelli also notes that the story may not have an ending, as the memories of the events and those lost continue to have a profound effect on survivors, their families, and the people of Rome.

• Memory and Meaning

- Portelli looks at the link between memory, meaning, and identity, and argues that because the attack was carried out in a metropolis and affected many different types of people, the event has “a powerful hold over memory and identity."³  This idea is the main focal point of the book and is examined throughout.

Part I: Rome

Chapter 2-4

• History of Rome
• History of Fascism
• History of Partisan Activity

These three chapters cover a great deal of information and lay the ground work placing the bombing and massacre in the larger context of Roman history. Portelli argues that history and memory are interconnected and the events that are remembered are narrated throughout the book play a powerful role in shaping the identity of Rome

Part II: The Fosse Ardeatine

Chapters 5-7

In these three chapters, narrators share their varying perspectives and memories of the resistance effort, the bombing at via Rasella, the arrests that followed, and the massacre at the Fosse Ardeatine.

• The bombing at via Rasella happened on March 23, 1944
• The Massacre at the Fosse Ardeatine happened on March 24, 1944
• A press release was sent out at 10:55 p.m. on March 24, 1944, announcing to the public what had already happened, closing with the words "This order has already been carried out."
  

Part III: Memory

Chapter 8-10

Memory is something that Portelli explores throughout the book and goes into great detail in the last three chapters on this issue. He examines some of the inconsistencies in the memories that are shared and discusses the possible reasons for those inconsistencies.

These inconsistencies include ...

• Numbers (the number of Germans killed at via Rasalle varies from 32 to 33, and the number killed at Fosse Ardeatine vary from 320 to 343)
• Who was at fault? The Germans?  The partisans?
  would the partisans have given themselves up had the opportunity been given?
• Who gave the order for the Germans to kill? Was there oppsitions within German ranks?

Portelli argues that the media and the church played a significant role in the formation and proliferation of memory.  “Popular belief and political distortions of memory, perpetrated by the popular press, the media, the Church, and conservative political forces” have in a sense created memories and narratives that have become entrenched in history.⁴  Portelli discusses the use of certain loaded words including "criminal," "victim," and "sacrifice."  As memory changes and history is revised, the "criminals" seem to become the "victims," and vice versa, according to Portelli. “This is the beginning of the shift of guilt from the Nazi executioners to the ‘cowardly’ and ‘irresponsible’ partisans. Along with the political Right, the media and sources close to the Church. . .were to play a major part in perpetuating this version over the years, allowing it to seep into the veins of public imagination ad thus contributing to poisoning the memory of the event...Herein lies the real, long-term success of the Nazi retaliation.”⁵ The word "sacrifice" is especially significant when used by the church, as it carries a strong connotation with it.  It implies that those who were killed at Fosse Ardeantine died in order to atone for the bombing at via Rasalle. However, why was no atonement required for previous attacks?  The word "sacrifice" raises many issues.

Portelli also discusses the fact that memory is shared in pieces, and these pieces are often cut and pasted together in a way that changes the memory. Not only can pieces change over time, but one piece may carry enormous significance for one individual, but might be trivial to another.

Divided memory is particularly troublesome and difficult to dissect. Divided memories do not only exist in two people having different perspectives, but may also exist within the same person, depending on which aspect of the memory is being discussed. 

Discussion Topics

The Order Has Been Carried Out examines critical aspects on the meaning, value, and interpretation of oral history. The most important question that the text asks is: "What do varying narratives say about memory?" Portelli traces stories arising out popular culture versus those originating in the close study of archival evidence. He juxtaposes the memories of the youth with the testimonies of the elder generation, particuarly those with a close connection to the events at the Fosse Ardeatine and other sites of Nazi persecution.

The text explores issues surrounding memories and narratives of trauma, persecution, and oppression. Portelli demonstrates the many ways and places that people turn private suffering into public mourning. He asks how these experiences are influenced by one another. These themes are highlighted further by particular mentions in narratives of references to the descriptive terms "unspeakable" and "unimaginable." Portelli shows through the narratives that while individuals may not be able to fully describe horrific experiences, they can and do try to convey pieces of the suffering through descriptions of smell, sound, and impact on mental health.

Portelli introduces each chapter with a list of victim's names. Why he does this, what impact it was meant to have, and what impact it does have are all questions that address the use of oral history in personalizing history, remembering those who cannot speak for themselves, and activism or oral history for a cause. It is also important to discuss why Portelli includes longer stories at the beginning and end of each chapter. Perhaps these stories are included in the text to provide a way for readers to connect with the narrators on a personal level.

Discussion Questions

1) Who do you think the intended audience is for this book? 2) What do you think of how Portelli chose the interviees for the book and also how his narratives are woven into theirs? 3) Were the photographs in the book helpful to the narrative? 4) Was the map and the list of narrators at the beginning of the book helpful?

References

1. Alessandro Portelli, The Order Has Been Carried Out: History, Memory, and Meaning of a Nazi Massacre in Rome(Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 17-18.

2. Ibid, 18.

3. Ibid, 9.

4. Ibid, 3.

5. Ibid, 3-4.